The docker run command includes volumes from the C drive, e.g. -v "C:\Users\admin\vsdbg\vs2017u5:/remote_debugger:rw". For these to work, you need to include the C drive in your shared drives (check the box under settings -> resources -> file sharing). You can also move the files to be shared to the D drive which is already shared to the embedded VM, though that is likely not an option in this case. To know which drives to share, check the drives used in volume mounts in the run command.
In previous versions of docker for Windows, this would silently succeed and mount an empty folder into the container. So the error telling users to check the shared drives first is a nice improvement.